Managing International Waters

Transboundary water courses link nations over shared resources. Conflicts are commonly occur, motivated by the impacts of upstream users on downstream recipients which cause disproportionate relationships between the people, communities and nations (Van der Zaag, 2015). Distribution of these resources usually becomes classified as either territorial sovereignty, whereby the state has absolute right to the water crossing its territory; or riverine integrity, which recognises the natural flow of a river as the water entitled to each of the riparian nations (Wolff, 1999). This hydropolitical thematic was recognised by Egyptians 5000 years ago. They furthermore acknowledged the links to the economy, conceiving Nilometers as a flow measure in order to tax farmers based on their consumption (Sadoff and Grey, 2002). However, resources would perhaps be more appropriately shared based on benefits provided, rather than exploitation of measured water units. For this matter, Sadoff and Grey (2002) recognise four categories of benefits accessed through cooperation in transboundary river basins: benefits to the river, benefits from the river, reduction of costs because of the river and benefits beyond the river. 

Nilometers: on Elephantine Island, steps go into the Nile and horizontal marks on the walls record the heights of inundations (left) on Rhoda Island, a single column with markings within it (right)
(Horus, 2009; Stanley, 2013)

The Nile is a major global alluvial basin flowing through 11 countries. Many agreements have been required to regulate its uses, some of which were written upon the development of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam. A Declaration of Principles was signed by Ethiopia, Sudan and Egypt aiming to settle the disagreements emerging from Ethiopia's affirmation that no impacts resulted downstream of the dam while Egypt argued it posed a threat to their water security (Tawfik, 2019). Cooperation promotes interdependence in each country’ area of competitive advantage. For instance, Sudan’s insecurity relates to conflicts, undeveloped infrastructure, restricted access to markets and high food prices. Nevertheless, it has a high agricultural potential of 105 million hectares of cultivable land, 2.7% of which are suitable for irrigation (Al-Saidi et al., 2017). Thus, investment from Egypt could efficiently mobilise its potential sharing technology and expertise on irrigation practices. However, Egypt suspects increasing dependence for food security on other countries already controlling their water security will allow higher foreign influence on their national policies (Tawfiq, 2019). 

Overview of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (Mengistu, 2020)

Subsequently, Virtual Water Trade emerges. The term is occasionally problematic but useful to refer to ‘the water needed to produce agricultural commodities’ (Allan, 2003). Its global volume surpasses 2300Gm3/year, of which 76% are crop trade products (Mekonnen and Hoekstra, 2011). Egyptian net virtual water imports comprise 15.3 km3/year and they are not predicted to decrease given the restrictions of available land and production yield which make the country reliant on the global food market to secure its food demand (Hoekstra, 2003; Al-Saidi et al., 2017). Nonetheless, countries dependent on imports for their food supply may undermine their local productions, become politically dependent and increase vulnerability to adverse climate conditions (Niang et al., 2014). 

Net virtual water trade from 1995 to 1999, where red represents net import and green net export (Hoekstra, 2003)

Distribution of water is additionally complicated with nomadic communities, such as the Fulani. Their lifestyle and migratory pattern contrast with farming communities. This raises conflict in times of drought, when concentration around water resources causes competition (McGuirk and Nunn, 2020). Generally, conflicts negatively impact societies as resources are diverted to their management instead of looking after the provision of basic needs (Bessadi, 2019). This issue connects to the discussions of Indigenous people’s territorial rights and the possibility for nomadic communities to maintain their traditional lifestyles.Moreover, cross-border pastoralism generates a different trade which is not often approved, as it is unregulated and beyond one government’s control. Nevertheless, such trade lowers food prices while increasing food security, relieving border tensions and promoting integration (Pavanello, 2010). It encompasses around 95% of the regional East-African trade and is one of the fastest growing areas of commercial activity in the region (Pavanello, 2010). In Africa, the regional trade of embedded water resources is much more efficient than any other global region, suggesting that the continental trade compensates for low national productivity (Konar and Caylor, 2013)

Sharing natural resources is not an easy task, especially when the consequences dramatically challenge livelihoods. Additionally, embedded water trade is difficult to manage without conflict. However, they provide alleviation to the pressure of building a self-sufficient economy. In fact, food-related trade is crucial to ease the increasing pressure from food security. Water is omnipresent in our livelihoods and though it should be shared from its source, it can be acquired through many more pathways than we imagine.